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Author: Fabio Crameri

Seismic mantle tomography maps

Surface projected global horizontal seismic S-wave velocity anomaly maps for different mantle depths revealing the two large low shear-wave velocity provinces (LLSVPs).

Surface projected global horizontal seismic S-wave velocity anomaly maps for different mantle depths revealing the two large low shear-wave velocity provinces (LLSVPs) below the Pacific (named Jason) and Africa (named Tuzo). Shown is the S10MEAN model based on Doubrovine et al. (2016) averaging 10 tomography models allowing to compare relative variations in S-wave velocity. The Scientific colour map ‘batlow‘ is used to represent data accurately and to all readers.

  • Creator: Fabio Crameri
  • This version: 31.10.2021
  • License: Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)
  • Specific citation: This graphic by Fabio Crameri based on data compiled by Doubrovine et al. (2016) is available via the open-access s-Ink repository.
  • Related references: Doubrovine, P. V., Steinberger, B., and Torsvik, T. H. (2016), A failure to reject: Testing the correlation between large igneous provinces and deep mantle structures with EDF statistics, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 17, 1130– 1163, doi:10.1002/2015GC006044.
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S-wave velocity maps

Global horizontal S-wave seismic velocity anomaly maps for different upper-mantle depths.

Global horizontal S-wave seismic velocity anomaly maps for different upper-mantle depths highlighting the variable base topography of the surface plates with seismically fast, deep continental roots and cratons reaching far down into the mantle. Shown is the average of two upper-mantle seismic tomography models, SL2013sv (Schaeffer & Lebedev, 2013) and 3D2016_09Sv (Debayle et al., 2016). The Scientific colour map ‘batlow‘ is used to represent data accurately and to all readers.

  • Creator: Fabio Crameri
  • This version: 30.10.2021
  • License: Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)
  • Specific citation: This graphic by Fabio Crameri based on data compiled on SubMachine (Hosseini et al., 2018) is available via the open-access s-Ink repository.
  • Related references:
    · Hosseini, K. , Matthews, K. J., Sigloch, K. , Shephard, G. E., Domeier, M. and Tsekhmistrenko, M. (2018), SubMachine: Web-Based tools for exploring seismic tomography and other models of Earth’s deep interior. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 19. doi:10.1029/2018GC007431
    · Debayle, E., Dubuffet, F., and Durand, S. (2016), An automatically updated S-wave model of the upper mantle and the depth extent of azimuthal anisotropy, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 674– 682, doi:10.1002/2015GL067329.
    · A. J. Schaeffer, S. Lebedev, Global shear speed structure of the upper mantle and transition zone, Geophysical Journal International, Volume 194, Issue 1, July 2013, Pages 417–449, https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggt095
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Sea-level change mechanisms (sketch)

Sketches outlining the solid-Earth induced sea-level change mechanisms over different time periods, covering elastic, viscous, and mantle convection time scales.

Sketches outlining the solid-Earth induced change of sea level over different time periods, covering elastic (instantaneous), viscous (thousand to hundred thousand years), and mantle convection (Million to Billion years) time scales. Shown are the solid Earth and oceans (filled areas) and their surfaces after an applied change to the system (lines).

On the shortest time scales, the solid Earth deforms elastically in response to an imposed load: an ice sheet uplifts the ground near areas of mass loss and depresses the ocean basins, which gain mass. The sea surface drops near the mass loss because the diminished ice sheet gravitationally attracts less seawater. Relative to the ground surface, sea-level drops near melting ice, but rises faster than average over the rest of the ocean.

Following glacial unloading, Earth deforms viscously on time scales of 1’000–100’000 years as the mantle flows back into the depressed region. This uplifts the region near the former ice sheet (locally causing relative sea-level drop) and depresses the surrounding peripheral forebulge. If the forebulge collapses beneath the sea surface, the added basin volume causes far-field (eustatic) sea-level drop.

On time scales of one Million years and longer, solid Earth processes associated with plate tectonics and mantle dynamics dominate sea-level change (Harrison, 1990; Miller et al., 2005). Shown here are the major processes that can elevate global average (eustatic) sea level (and depress it when acting oppositely). Global sea level rises when the “container” volume of the ocean basins decreases, which can have multiple reasons. Sea level also rises, if water exchange with the deep mantle becomes imbalanced.

  • Creator: Clint P. Conrad
  • This version: 27.10.2021
  • License: Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)
  • Specific citation: This graphic by Clint Conrad based on Conrad (2013) is available via the open-access s-Ink repository.
  • Related reference: Conrad, C.P. (2013), The solid earth’s influence on sea level, Geological Society of America Bulletin, 125, 1027-1052, doi:10.1130/B30764.1.
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Global-scale mantle flow (sketch)

A sketch outlining the link between the viscous convection within the Earth’s mantle and tectonic surface plate motions.

A sketch outlining the link between the viscous convection within the Earth’s mantle and tectonic surface plate motions, deforming Earth’s surface across wide areas. Shown are the relative positions and motion of some of Earth’s continental (brown) and oceanic plates (blue) captured by the hypothetical cross-section through the middle of the planet. The dynamic link between surface and mantle motion is highlighted by arrows representing first-order material flow direction. This global-scale mantle flow is believed to also affect the shape, position and mobility of large low shear-velocity provinces (LLSVPs; red) at the base of the mantle (yellow) just above the Earth’s core (orange).

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Seismic wave travel paths

A schematic highlighting the travel paths of seismic waves through the Earth’s interior.

A schematic highlighting the travel paths of seismic waves through the Earth’s interior. Seismic waves travelling through the Earth follow a curving path due to changes in composition, pressure, and temperature within the layers of the Earth. They follow the same laws of refraction and reflection at interfaces as others waves. When they encounter boundaries between different media, the waves behave according to Snell’s law, with the resulting angle of refraction across the boundary depending on the velocity difference between the two media. Seismic wave arrivals, and the lack of arrivals of direct S- and P-waves, at distant seismic stations have taught us that there are multiple layers within the Earth.

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Lithosphere thickness map

Global maps displaying lateral variations in lithosphere thickness across the surface of the Earth.

Global maps displaying lateral variations in lithosphere thickness across the surface of the Earth. Oceanic lithosphere is assigned a thickness proportional to the square root of its age (ages are taken from Müller et al., 1997). For continental areas, characteristic thickness is determined following the method of Gung et al. (2003), who employ the maximum depth for which the seismic velocity anomaly (as determined using the seismic tomography model S20RTSb of Ritsema et al., 2004) is consistently greater than +2%. Moreover, a 100-km thickness is imposed as the minimum continental and maximum oceanic characteristic thickness. It should be kept in mind that material properties such as viscosity vary continuously throughout the depth of the lithosphere, so the definition of thickness may vary. The presented model does not assume any particular definition, but instead characterises lateral variations in layer thickness (see Conrad and Lithogow-Bertelloni, 2006). The Scientific colour map ‘acton‘ is used to represent data accurately and to all readers.

  • Creator: Fabio Crameri
  • This version: 25.10.2021
  • License: Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)
  • Specific citation: This graphic by Fabio Crameri based on data by Conrad & Lithgow-Bertelloni (2006) is available via the open-access s-ink.org repository.
  • Related reference: Conrad, C.P., and C. Lithgow-Bertelloni (2006), Influence of continental roots and asthenosphere on plate-mantle coupling, Geophysical Research Letters, 33, L05312, doi:10.1029/2005GL025621.
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Heat flow map

Global maps of the solid Earth’s surface heat flow based on Davies (2013).

Global maps of the solid Earth’s surface heat flow based on Davies (2013). Relying on over 38,000 measurements, the map is a combination of three components. First, in regions of young ocean crust (<67.7 Ma), the model estimate uses a half-space conduction model based on the age of the oceanic crust, since it is well known that raw data measurements are frequently influenced by significant hydrothermal circulation. Second, in other regions of data coverage, the estimate is based on data measurements. At the map resolution, these two categories (young ocean & data covered) cover 65% of Earth’s surface. Third, for all other regions the estimate is based on the assumption that there is a correlation between heat flow and geology. This assumption is assessed and the correlation is found to provide a minor improvement over assuming that heat flow would be represented by the global average.

The Scientific colour map ‘lipari‘ is used to represent data accurately and to all readers.

  • Creator: Fabio Crameri
  • Original version: 25.10.2021
  • This version: 10.05.2023
  • License: Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)
  • Specific citation: This graphic by Fabio Crameri based on Davies (2013) is available via the open-access s-ink.org repository.
  • Related reference: Davies, J. H. (2013), Global map of solid Earth surface heat flow, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 14, 4608– 4622, doi:10.1002/ggge.20271.
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Subduction zone initiation types

Illustration of the three types of subduction zone initiation (SZI) events, namely Newly destructive, Episodic subduction, and Polarity reversal.

Illustration of the three types of subduction zone initiation (SZI) events. As outlined in Crameri et al. (2020), the SZI type is either Newly destructive (a subduction fault establishing from an intact-plate portion or some sort of non-subduction-related plate weakness), Episodic subduction (a subduction fault establishing at the same location following a previous, yet terminated subduction zone with the same polarity), or Polarity reversal (formation of a new subduction fault with opposite polarity to the fault of the pre-existing, terminating subduction zone).

  • Creator: Fabio Crameri
  • This version: 24.10.2021
  • License: Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)
  • Specific citation: This graphic by Fabio Crameri from Crameri et al. (2020) is available via the open-access s-Ink repository.
  • Related reference: Crameri, F., V. Magni, M. Domeier, G.E. Shephard, K. Chotalia, G. Cooper, C. Eakin, A.G. Grima, D. Gürer, A. Király, E. Mulyukova, K. Peters, B. Robert, and M. Thielmann (2020), A transdisciplinary and community-driven database to unravel subduction zone initiation, Nature Communications, 11, 3750. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17522-9
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Subduction initiation forcing

The illustration depicts two endmember states in subduction zone initiation: vertically-forced and horizontally-forced subduction initiation.

Illustration of the two endmember states forcing a new subduction zone. The two endmember forcing states characterising subduction zone initiation (SZI) can be described as either vertically-forced or horizontally-forced. As outlined in Crameri et al. (2020), the dominant forcing is either—but never exclusively—vertical (i.e., some combination of plate buoyancy force, the force from any surface load, and vertical mantle-flow force), or horizontal (i.e., some combination of tectonic force and horizontal mantle-flow force).

  • Creator: Fabio Crameri
  • This version: 24.10.2021
  • License: Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)
  • Specific citation: This graphic by Fabio Crameri from Crameri et al. (2020) is available via the open-access s-Ink repository.
  • Related reference: Crameri, F., V. Magni, M. Domeier, G.E. Shephard, K. Chotalia, G. Cooper, C. Eakin, A.G. Grima, D. Gürer, A. Király, E. Mulyukova, K. Peters, B. Robert, and M. Thielmann (2020), A transdisciplinary and community-driven database to unravel subduction zone initiation, Nature Communications, 11, 3750. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17522-9
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