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Tag: Sea-level

Sea-level evolution Europe

Projections of annual mean sea-level changes around Europe, referencing a baseline from 1986–2005.

Projected (historical and future) annual mean sea-level around Europe relative to the 1986–2005 reference period based on hydrodynamic modelling using Global Climate Models (GCMs). Contributing to sea-level rise are the thermal expansion of the ocean, changes in ocean circulation, ice sheet contributions, and glacio-isostatic adjustment (here not considered are subsidence and tectonics). Visualising such variations ins regional and local sea level is critical to evaluate coastal flooding, coastal erosion, and the accessibility of ports.


Data is from the Copernicus Climate Change Service (2022) and the Scientific colour map ‘roma‘ is used to represent the data accurately and to all readers.

  • Creator: Fabio Crameri
  • This version: 21.07.2026
  • License: Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)
  • Specific citation: This graphic by Fabio Crameri using data from Copernicus Climate Change Service is available via the open-access s-ink.org repository.
  • Related reference: Copernicus Climate Change Service (2022): Global sea level change time series from 1950 to 2050 derived from reanalysis and high resolution CMIP6 climate projections. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS). DOI: 10.24381/cds.a6d42d60 (Accessed on 21-JUL-2026)

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Sea-level change mechanisms (sketch)

Sketches outlining the solid-Earth induced sea-level change mechanisms over different time periods, covering elastic, viscous, and mantle convection time scales.

Sketches outlining the solid-Earth induced change of sea level over different time periods, covering elastic (instantaneous), viscous (thousand to hundred thousand years), and mantle convection (Million to Billion years) time scales. Shown are the solid Earth and oceans (filled areas) and their surfaces after an applied change to the system (lines).

On the shortest time scales, the solid Earth deforms elastically in response to an imposed load: an ice sheet uplifts the ground near areas of mass loss and depresses the ocean basins, which gain mass. The sea surface drops near the mass loss because the diminished ice sheet gravitationally attracts less seawater. Relative to the ground surface, sea-level drops near melting ice, but rises faster than average over the rest of the ocean.

Following glacial unloading, Earth deforms viscously on time scales of 1’000–100’000 years as the mantle flows back into the depressed region. This uplifts the region near the former ice sheet (locally causing relative sea-level drop) and depresses the surrounding peripheral forebulge. If the forebulge collapses beneath the sea surface, the added basin volume causes far-field (eustatic) sea-level drop.

On time scales of one Million years and longer, solid Earth processes associated with plate tectonics and mantle dynamics dominate sea-level change (Harrison, 1990; Miller et al., 2005). Shown here are the major processes that can elevate global average (eustatic) sea level (and depress it when acting oppositely). Global sea level rises when the “container” volume of the ocean basins decreases, which can have multiple reasons. Sea level also rises, if water exchange with the deep mantle becomes imbalanced.

  • Creator: Clint P. Conrad
  • This version: 27.10.2021
  • License: Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0)
  • Specific citation: This graphic by Clint Conrad based on Conrad (2013) is available via the open-access s-Ink repository.
  • Related reference: Conrad, C.P. (2013), The solid earth’s influence on sea level, Geological Society of America Bulletin, 125, 1027-1052, doi:10.1130/B30764.1.
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